12 KiB
Educational Design
This resource provides cognitive design principles for instructional materials, e-learning courses, and educational software.
Covered topics:
- Multimedia learning principles (Mayer's principles)
- Dual coding theory
- Worked examples for skill acquisition
- Retrieval practice for retention
- Segmenting and coherence
Why Educational Design Needs Cognitive Principles
WHY This Matters
Core insight: Human learning is constrained by working memory limits and processing channels - instructional design must align with these cognitive realities.
Common problems:
- Dense slides with text paragraphs + complex diagrams (split attention)
- Passive reading/watching (weak memory traces)
- Decorative graphics competing with instructional content
- Information overload (exceeds working memory)
- No active recall opportunities (retrieval practice missing)
How cognitive principles help:
- Dual coding: Combine relevant visuals + words (two memory traces)
- Modalities principle: Audio narration + visuals (splits load across channels)
- Coherence: Remove extraneous content (frees working memory)
- Segmenting: Break into chunks (fits working memory)
- Retrieval practice: Active recall strengthens retention
Research foundation: Richard Mayer's multimedia learning principles, John Sweller's cognitive load theory, Paivio's dual coding theory
What You'll Learn
Five key areas:
- Multimedia Principles: How to combine words, pictures, and audio effectively
- Dual Coding: Leveraging visual and verbal processing channels
- Worked Examples: Teaching complex procedures efficiently
- Retrieval Practice: Active recall for long-term retention
- Segmenting & Coherence: Chunking content and removing noise
Why Multimedia Principles Matter
WHY This Matters
Core insight: People have separate processing channels for visual and verbal information (Baddeley's working memory model) - proper multimedia design leverages both without overloading either.
Baddeley's Model:
- Phonological loop: Processes spoken/written words
- Visuospatial sketchpad: Processes images/spatial information
- Central executive: Coordinates both channels
Implication: You can split cognitive load across channels, but wrong combinations cause interference.
WHAT to Apply
Multimedia Principle
Principle: People learn better from words + pictures than words alone
Evidence: Dual coding creates two memory traces instead of one (Paivio 1971, Mayer 2001)
Application:
❌ Text-only explanation of process
✓ Diagram showing process + text labels
✓ Video demonstrating concept + verbal explanation
Example: Teaching how heart pumps blood
❌ Text description only
✓ Animated diagram of heart + narration
Result: 50-100% better retention with multimedia
Caution: Pictures must be RELEVANT to content
❌ Decorative stock photo of "learning" (generic student at desk)
✓ Annotated diagram directly supporting concept
Modality Principle
Principle: Audio narration + visuals better than on-screen text + visuals
Why: On-screen text + complex visual both compete for visual channel (overload)
Application:
For animations or complex diagrams:
❌ Dense on-screen text + diagram (visual channel overloaded)
✓ Audio narration + diagram (splits load across channels)
Example: Explaining software interface
❌ Screenshot with text callouts explaining every feature
✓ Screenshot + voiceover explaining each feature
Result: Reduces cognitive load, improves comprehension
Exception: For static text-heavy content (articles, code), on-screen text is fine
- Reader controls pace
- Can re-read as needed
- Narration unnecessary
Spatial Contiguity Principle
Principle: Place text near corresponding graphics, not separated
Why: Prevents holding one in memory while searching for the other (split attention)
Application:
Diagram with labels:
❌ Diagram on left, labels in legend/list on right (requires visual search + memory)
✓ Labels directly ON or immediately adjacent to diagram parts
Example: Anatomy diagram
❌ Numbered diagram + separate key (1. Heart, 2. Lungs...)
✓ Direct labels on organs + leader lines
Result: Instant association, no memory burden
Temporal Contiguity Principle
Principle: Present corresponding narration and animation simultaneously, not sequentially
Why: Holding one in memory while waiting for the other adds cognitive load
Application:
Video lesson:
❌ Show full animation, then explain what happened (requires remembering animation)
✓ Narrate while animation plays (synchronized)
Example: Chemistry reaction
❌ Play full reaction animation → then explain
✓ Narrate each step as it's happening
Result: Immediate connection between visual and explanation
Coherence Principle
Principle: Exclude extraneous material - every element should support learning goal
What to remove:
❌ Decorative graphics unrelated to content
❌ Background music during instruction
❌ Tangential interesting stories (if they don't support main point)
❌ Excessive detail beyond learning objective
✓ Keep: Relevant diagrams, supporting examples, meaningful practice
Application:
Slide design:
Before (violates coherence):
- Stock photo of "teamwork" (decorative)
- Background music playing
- Tangent about company history
- Dense paragraph with extra details
→ Cognitive overload from extraneous content
After (coherent):
- Diagram directly illustrating concept
- No background music
- Focus only on learning objective
- Concise explanation
→ All working memory devoted to learning
Evidence: Extraneous content can reduce learning by 30-50% (Mayer)
Signaling Principle
Principle: Highlight essential material to guide attention
Application:
✓ Bold key terms first time introduced
✓ Headings/subheadings show structure
✓ Arrows/circles on diagrams highlighting key elements
✓ Verbal cues: "The most important point is..."
✓ Color highlighting for critical information (use sparingly)
Example: Complex diagram
Without signaling: User must determine what's important
With signaling: Arrows point to key mechanism, key part highlighted
Result: Attention directed to essentials
Segmenting Principle
Principle: Break lessons into user-paced segments rather than continuous presentation
Why: Fits working memory limits, allows consolidation before next chunk
Application:
❌ 30-minute continuous lecture video (cognitive overload)
✓ 6 segments × 5 minutes each, user clicks "Next" to continue
Benefits:
- Fits attention span
- User controls pace (can pause/replay)
- Breaks between segments allow consolidation
- Can skip ahead if already know topic
Optimal segment length: 3-7 minutes per concept
Why Dual Coding Matters
WHY This Matters
Dual Coding Theory (Paivio): Humans process visual and verbal information through separate channels that can reinforce each other.
Benefits:
- Two memory traces instead of one (redundancy aids recall)
- Visual channel good for spatial/concrete concepts
- Verbal channel good for abstract/sequential concepts
- Combined = stronger encoding
WHAT to Apply
Application patterns:
Text + Diagram:
Example: Explaining data structure
✓ Code snippet (verbal) + visual diagram of structure
Result: Can recall via either channel
Narration + Illustration:
Example: Historical event
✓ Illustrated timeline + audio story
Result: Visual spatial memory + verbal narrative memory
Caution - Avoid Redundant Text:
❌ On-screen text identical to audio narration (doesn't add channel, just duplicates)
✓ On-screen keywords/outline + audio detailed explanation
Why Worked Examples Matter
WHY This Matters
Core insight: For novices learning procedures, worked examples reduce extraneous cognitive load and allow focus on solution patterns.
Problem-solving (novice):
- High cognitive load (exploring solution space)
- Many wrong paths taken
- Limited capacity for noticing patterns
Worked example (novice):
- Low extraneous load (no exploring)
- All capacity devoted to understanding steps
- Can study solution pattern
Application: Transition from worked examples → partially completed examples → full problems
WHAT to Apply
Worked Example Structure:
Step 1: Problem statement
Step 2: Solution shown with explanation of each step
Step 3: Principle highlighted: "Notice how we..."
Example: Math problem
Instead of: "Solve this equation: 3x + 7 = 19"
Better:
Problem: 3x + 7 = 19
Solution:
3x + 7 = 19
3x = 12 (subtract 7 from both sides - inverse operation)
x = 4 (divide both sides by 3 - inverse operation)
Principle: Use inverse operations to isolate variable
Fading:
Start: Full worked example
Next: Partially worked (complete last step)
Then: Start provided, learner completes middle + end
Finally: Full problem-solving
Why Retrieval Practice Matters
WHY This Matters
Testing effect: Practicing retrieval (active recall) creates stronger memory traces than passive re-reading.
Evidence: Retrieval practice improves long-term retention by 30-50% vs passive study (Roediger & Karpicke)
Why it works:
- Active recall strengthens memory pathways
- Identifies gaps in knowledge (metacognitive benefit)
- Desirable difficulty (requires effort = better encoding)
WHAT to Apply
Application patterns:
Embedded quizzes:
After each segment: 2-3 questions testing key concepts
✓ Multiple choice (forces retrieval)
✓ Short answer (even better - must generate answer)
✓ Immediate explanatory feedback (not just "correct/incorrect")
Example:
After video on Gestalt principles:
Q: "Which principle explains why we see related items as grouped when they're placed close together?"
A: Proximity principle
Feedback: "Correct! Proximity is the tendency to group nearby elements. This is why we use whitespace to separate unrelated content."
Spaced repetition:
Immediate: Quiz at end of lesson
1 day later: Review quiz
1 week later: Cumulative quiz
1 month later: Final assessment
Spacing effect: Distributed practice beats massed practice
Low-stakes practice:
✓ Formative quizzes don't count toward grade (reduces anxiety)
✓ Unlimited attempts (learning goal, not evaluation)
✓ Explanatory feedback (teaching moment)
Why Segmenting & Coherence Matter
WHY This Matters
Segmenting: Prevents cognitive overload by chunking within working memory limits
Coherence: Eliminates extraneous load so all capacity devoted to learning
Together: Essential for managing cognitive load in complex material
WHAT to Apply
Segmenting strategies:
30-minute topic divided into:
- Segment 1 (5 min): Concept introduction + first example
- Pause (user clicks next)
- Segment 2 (5 min): Second example + principle
- Pause
- Segment 3 (5 min): Practice problem
- Pause
- Segment 4 (5 min): Application to real scenario
- Pause
- Segment 5 (5 min): Summary + quiz
Benefits: Working memory not overloaded, consolidation between segments
Coherence strategies:
Remove:
❌ Decorative stock photos
❌ Background music
❌ Tangential fun facts (if they don't support learning objective)
❌ Overly detailed explanations beyond scope
Keep:
✓ Relevant diagrams supporting concept
✓ Concrete examples illustrating principle
✓ Practice problems applying knowledge
✓ Summaries reinforcing key points