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+# PubMed Search Syntax and Field Tags
+
+## Boolean Operators
+
+PubMed supports standard Boolean operators to combine search terms:
+
+### AND
+Retrieves results containing all search terms. PubMed automatically applies AND between separate concepts.
+
+**Example**:
+```
+diabetes AND hypertension
+```
+
+### OR
+Retrieves results containing at least one of the search terms. Useful for synonyms or related concepts.
+
+**Example**:
+```
+heart attack OR myocardial infarction
+```
+
+### NOT
+Excludes results containing the specified term. Use cautiously as it may eliminate relevant results.
+
+**Example**:
+```
+cancer NOT lung
+```
+
+**Precedence**: Operations are processed left to right. Use parentheses to control evaluation order:
+```
+(heart attack OR myocardial infarction) AND treatment
+```
+
+## Phrase Searching
+
+### Double Quotes
+Enclose exact phrases in double quotes to search for terms in specific order:
+
+```
+"kidney allograft"
+"machine learning"
+"systematic review"
+```
+
+### Field Tags
+Alternative method using field tags:
+```
+kidney allograft[Title]
+```
+
+## Wildcards
+
+Use asterisk (*) to substitute for zero or more characters:
+
+**Rules**:
+- Minimum 4 characters before first wildcard
+- Matches word variations and plurals
+
+**Examples**:
+```
+vaccin*        → matches vaccine, vaccination, vaccines, vaccinate
+pediatr*       → matches pediatric, pediatrics, pediatrician
+colo*r         → matches color, colour
+```
+
+**Limitations**:
+- Cannot use at beginning of search term
+- May retrieve unexpected variations
+
+## Proximity Searching
+
+Search for terms within a specified distance from each other. Only available in Title, Title/Abstract, and Affiliation fields.
+
+**Syntax**: `"search terms"[field:~N]`
+- N = maximum number of words between terms
+
+**Examples**:
+```
+"vitamin C"[Title:~3]           → vitamin within 3 words of C in title
+"breast cancer screening"[TIAB:~5]  → terms within 5 words in title/abstract
+```
+
+## Search Field Tags
+
+Field tags limit searches to specific parts of PubMed records. Format: `term[tag]`
+
+### Author Searching
+
+| Tag | Field | Example |
+|-----|-------|---------|
+| [au] | Author | smith j[au] |
+| [1au] | First Author | jones m[1au] |
+| [lastau] | Last Author | wilson k[lastau] |
+| [fau] | Full Author Name | smith john a[fau] |
+
+**Author Search Notes**:
+- Full author names searchable from 2002 forward
+- Format: last name + initials (e.g., `smith ja[au]`)
+- Can search without field tag, but [au] ensures accuracy
+
+**Corporate Authors**:
+Search organizations as authors:
+```
+world health organization[au]
+```
+
+### Title and Abstract
+
+| Tag | Field | Example |
+|-----|-------|---------|
+| [ti] | Title | diabetes[ti] |
+| [ab] | Abstract | treatment[ab] |
+| [tiab] | Title/Abstract | cancer screening[tiab] |
+| [tw] | Text Word | cardiovascular[tw] |
+
+**Notes**:
+- [tw] searches title, abstract, and other text fields
+- [tiab] is most commonly used for comprehensive searching
+
+### Journal Information
+
+| Tag | Field | Example |
+|-----|-------|---------|
+| [ta] | Journal Title Abbreviation | Science[ta] |
+| [jour] | Journal | New England Journal of Medicine[jour] |
+| [issn] | ISSN | 0028-4793[issn] |
+
+### Date Fields
+
+| Tag | Field | Format | Example |
+|-----|-------|--------|---------|
+| [dp] | Publication Date | YYYY/MM/DD | 2023[dp] |
+| [edat] | Entrez Date | YYYY/MM/DD | 2023/01/15[edat] |
+| [crdt] | Create Date | YYYY/MM/DD | 2023[crdt] |
+| [mhda] | MeSH Date | YYYY/MM/DD | 2023[mhda] |
+
+**Date Ranges**:
+Use colon to specify ranges:
+```
+2020:2023[dp]                    → publications from 2020 to 2023
+2023/01/01:2023/06/30[dp]        → first half of 2023
+```
+
+**Relative Dates**:
+PubMed filters provide common ranges:
+- Last 1 year
+- Last 5 years
+- Last 10 years
+- Custom date range
+
+### MeSH and Subject Headings
+
+| Tag | Field | Example |
+|-----|-------|---------|
+| [mh] | MeSH Terms | diabetes mellitus[mh] |
+| [majr] | MeSH Major Topic | hypertension[majr] |
+| [mesh] | MeSH Terms | cancer[mesh] |
+| [sh] | MeSH Subheading | therapy[sh] |
+
+**MeSH Searching**:
+- Medical Subject Headings provide controlled vocabulary
+- [mh] includes narrower terms automatically
+- [majr] limits to articles where topic is main focus
+- Combine with subheadings: `diabetes mellitus/therapy[mh]`
+
+**Common MeSH Subheadings**:
+- /diagnosis
+- /drug therapy
+- /epidemiology
+- /etiology
+- /prevention & control
+- /therapy
+
+### Publication Types
+
+| Tag | Field | Example |
+|-----|-------|---------|
+| [pt] | Publication Type | clinical trial[pt] |
+| [ptyp] | Publication Type | review[ptyp] |
+
+**Common Publication Types**:
+- Clinical Trial
+- Meta-Analysis
+- Randomized Controlled Trial
+- Review
+- Systematic Review
+- Case Reports
+- Letter
+- Editorial
+- Guideline
+
+**Example**:
+```
+cancer AND systematic review[pt]
+```
+
+### Other Useful Fields
+
+| Tag | Field | Example |
+|-----|-------|---------|
+| [la] | Language | english[la] |
+| [affil] | Affiliation | harvard[affil] |
+| [pmid] | PubMed ID | 12345678[pmid] |
+| [pmc] | PMC ID | PMC123456[pmc] |
+| [doi] | DOI | 10.1234/example[doi] |
+| [gr] | Grant Number | R01CA123456[gr] |
+| [isbn] | ISBN | 9780123456789[isbn] |
+| [pg] | Pagination | 123-145[pg] |
+| [vi] | Volume | 45[vi] |
+| [ip] | Issue | 3[ip] |
+
+### Supplemental Concepts
+
+| Tag | Field | Example |
+|-----|-------|---------|
+| [nm] | Substance Name | aspirin[nm] |
+| [ps] | Personal Name | darwin charles[ps] |
+
+## Automatic Term Mapping (ATM)
+
+When searching without field tags, PubMed automatically:
+
+1. **Searches MeSH translation table** for matching MeSH terms
+2. **Searches journal translation table** for journal names
+3. **Searches author index** for author names
+4. **Searches full text** for remaining terms
+
+**Bypass ATM**:
+- Use double quotes: `"breast cancer"`
+- Use field tags: `breast cancer[tiab]`
+
+**View Translation**:
+Use Advanced Search to see how PubMed translated your query in the Search Details box.
+
+## Filters and Limits
+
+### Article Types
+- Clinical Trial
+- Meta-Analysis
+- Randomized Controlled Trial
+- Review
+- Systematic Review
+
+### Text Availability
+- Free full text
+- Full text
+- Abstract
+
+### Publication Date
+- Last 1 year
+- Last 5 years
+- Last 10 years
+- Custom date range
+
+### Species
+- Humans
+- Animals (specific species available)
+
+### Sex
+- Female
+- Male
+
+### Age Groups
+- Child (0-18 years)
+- Infant (birth-23 months)
+- Child, Preschool (2-5 years)
+- Child (6-12 years)
+- Adolescent (13-18 years)
+- Adult (19+ years)
+- Aged (65+ years)
+- 80 and over
+
+### Languages
+- English
+- Spanish
+- French
+- German
+- Chinese
+- And many others
+
+### Other Filters
+- Journal categories
+- Subject area
+- Article attributes (e.g., has abstract, free PMC article)
+
+## Advanced Search Strategies
+
+### Clinical Queries
+PubMed provides specialized filters for clinical research:
+
+**Study Categories**:
+- Therapy (narrow/broad)
+- Diagnosis (narrow/broad)
+- Etiology (narrow/broad)
+- Prognosis (narrow/broad)
+- Clinical prediction guides
+
+**Medical Genetics**:
+- Diagnosis
+- Differential diagnosis
+- Clinical description
+- Management
+- Genetic counseling
+
+### Hedges and Filters
+Pre-built search strategies for specific purposes:
+- Systematic review filters
+- Quality filters for study types
+- Geographic filters
+
+### Combining Searches
+Use Advanced Search to combine previous queries:
+```
+#1 AND #2
+#3 OR #4
+#5 NOT #6
+```
+
+### Search History
+- Saves up to 100 searches
+- Expires after 8 hours of inactivity
+- Access via Advanced Search page
+- Combine using # references
+
+## Best Practices
+
+### 1. Start Broad, Then Narrow
+Begin with general terms and add specificity:
+```
+diabetes                                 → too broad
+diabetes mellitus type 2                 → better
+diabetes mellitus type 2[mh] AND treatment[tiab] → more specific
+```
+
+### 2. Use Synonyms with OR
+Include alternative terms:
+```
+heart attack OR myocardial infarction OR MI
+```
+
+### 3. Combine Concepts with AND
+Link different aspects of your research question:
+```
+(heart attack OR myocardial infarction) AND (aspirin OR acetylsalicylic acid) AND prevention
+```
+
+### 4. Leverage MeSH Terms
+Use MeSH for consistent indexing:
+```
+diabetes mellitus[mh] AND hypertension[mh]
+```
+
+### 5. Use Filters Strategically
+Apply filters to refine results:
+- Publication date for recent research
+- Article type for specific study designs
+- Free full text for accessible articles
+
+### 6. Review Search Details
+Check how PubMed interpreted your search in Advanced Search to ensure accuracy.
+
+### 7. Save Effective Searches
+Create My NCBI account to:
+- Save searches
+- Set up email alerts
+- Create collections
+
+## Common Search Patterns
+
+### Systematic Review Search
+```
+(breast cancer[tiab] OR breast neoplasm[mh]) AND (screening[tiab] OR early detection[tiab]) AND systematic review[pt]
+```
+
+### Clinical Trial Search
+```
+diabetes mellitus type 2[mh] AND metformin[nm] AND randomized controlled trial[pt] AND 2020:2024[dp]
+```
+
+### Recent Research by Author
+```
+smith ja[au] AND cancer[tiab] AND 2023:2024[dp] AND english[la]
+```
+
+### Drug Treatment Studies
+```
+hypertension[mh] AND (amlodipine[nm] OR losartan[nm]) AND drug therapy[sh] AND humans[mh]
+```
+
+### Geographic-Specific Research
+```
+malaria[tiab] AND (africa[affil] OR african[tiab]) AND 2020:2024[dp]
+```
+
+## Special Characters
+
+| Character | Purpose | Example |
+|-----------|---------|---------|
+| * | Wildcard | colo*r |
+| " " | Phrase search | "breast cancer" |
+| ( ) | Group terms | (A OR B) AND C |
+| : | Range | 2020:2023[dp] |
+| - | Hyphenated terms | COVID-19 |
+| / | MeSH subheading | diabetes/therapy[mh] |
+
+## Troubleshooting
+
+### Too Many Results
+- Add more specific terms
+- Use field tags to limit search scope
+- Apply date restrictions
+- Use filters for article type
+- Add additional concepts with AND
+
+### Too Few Results
+- Remove restrictive terms
+- Use OR to add synonyms
+- Check spelling and terminology
+- Remove field tags for broader search
+- Expand date range
+- Remove filters
+
+### No Results
+- Check spelling using ESpell
+- Try alternative terminology
+- Remove field tags
+- Verify correct database (PubMed vs. PMC)
+- Broaden search terms
+
+### Unexpected Results
+- Review Search Details to see query translation
+- Use field tags to prevent automatic term mapping
+- Check for common synonyms that may be included
+- Refine with additional limiting terms